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[UNE 28, Ig00. nen iam OEE THE MARINE RECORD. chart, let us assume that we are 50 years ahead of the pres- ent time—that is, in 1950—when, in all probability, air ships will be as common as the bicycle of today. You are in Trenton, N, J. (Lat. 40° 14’ N. Long. 74° 46/ W), but ur- gent business requires your immediate presence at Scranton, Pa, (Lat. 41° 25’ N. Long. 75° 45’ W). Your air ship is in good condition, and you decide to take the shortest possi- ble route in order to reach Scranton. Unfortunately, your map of Pennsylvania and New Jersey is lost, but a table of meridional parts, drawing materials, and a compass is at your disposal ; you are also acquainted with the latitude and longitude of both places. All that has to be done now is to construct a chart similar to the one represented in Fig. 6, and mark down on it the positions of Trenton and Scranton, and connect the two places by a straight line. The angle that this line makes with one of the meridians will be the course you have to steer in order to reach Scranton in the shortest possible time. Measuring this angle, we find it to be 33° west of the meridian; hence, the course from Trenton to Scranton is N 33° W, or north-west by north. The cor- rectness of this may be verified on any chart the reader may possess. From what has been shown, it is evident that by the aid of a table of meridional parts, the construction of charts on Mercator’s projection is quite simple, and can be mastered by any one that has a knowledge of drawing and simple arithmetic. From the nature of its construction, however, the inexactness of the Mercator’s chart fully reveals itself in high latitudes, and for this reason is quite impracticable for polar navigation. In high latitudes, therefore, charts are not constructed on the Mercator’s projection, but on the gnomonic projection, which is splendidly adapted for maps of the polar regions. rr DEPTHS OF THE GREAT LAKES. (From the Chicago Chronicle. ) If the chain of Great Lakes which bound the northern lim- its of a portion of the United States could be brought to the level of the sea two of the chains would be practically wiped off the face of the earth. Lake Michigan would become two lakes much smaller than the present majestic body of water which lies off Chicago. Chicagoans could travel on what is now the bottom of the lake as far north as a point midway between Milwaukee and Grand Haven without get- ting their feet wet. _No system of lakes presents as wide variations of extreme depth as the big fresh water system. Beginning with Su- perior and following the chain eastward, they vary from 1386 feet to but 2iI0. They are respectively 602 feet above the sea level for Superior, 581 each for Michigan and Huron, 573 for Erie atid but 247 for Ontario. Superior is far the deepest with Michigan second. Outariois close on its heels, being within a few feet of Huron, while Erie is so shallow that its greatest depth is thirty-six feet less than the mid- lake depth of Michigan between Chicago and St. Joseph. Erie can claim but 210 feet extreme depth. As good an object lesson of what the lakes have to offer is the course between Chicago and St. Joseph, Mich. The coast is measured from the lights of the two harbors. Be- ginning from this side of the Government pier, already quite a way out, there is a depth of somethirty-six feet. Thelake shoals on this side so that the extreme depth of the spoon is a trifle beyond the middle of the fifty-seven mile course. It drops rapidly, however, from sixteen in the river to 246 out in the lake. But on the other side, within a couple of miles of the shore, the depth drops from twenty-four feet to 166 with frightful rapidity. By the time the second song is sung leaving St. Joseph the singer is in over some forty fathoms of water. Superior, if reduced to the sea level, would be robbed of two-thirds of its dimensions. The extreme depth is well east of the middle line. Michigan has her greatest depth, I,100 feet up, toward the Straits. Huron is less than 800, while Erie is very shallow. Ontario has a depth of 735 feet, owing to the falls of Niagara. If all were brought to sea level, Erie would be 500 feet above, Michigan would be a couple of ponds, Huron almost out of it, Superior a lake not much larger than many another, and Ontario the largest of the system, ee OO OO Payment by Loss of Collision—Subrogation to Damage Claim.—The right of subrogation in favor of marine insurers on payment of a loss resulting from collision, whether par- tial or total, is independent of any abandonment, and exists without it. The St. Johns, ror Fed. Rep. (U. S.) 469. THE EXPORT OF AMERICAN COAL. (The Yale Scientific Monthly. ) During the past. eighteen months Europe has suffered a coal stringency, which has greatly impeded industry on the continent and in England itself has raised the cost of man- ufacture and transportation. This insufficiency of the coal supply has been due to three principal causes: The industrial activity which stimulated the American consumption of coal to so marked a degree, has been equally prevalent in Europe. In fact the cycle of prosperity came upon Europea year before it was felt in this country. Another reason for Eu- rope’s scarcity of coal is the South African war. This war has not only increased the consumption of coal but has de- creased the number of miners by drawing them into the army. Again, the coal production of the continent has suf- fered from protracted strikesin the French and Hungarian mines, These events have sorely tried the European coal supply and the inability of that supply to fill the demand, has suggested the use of American coal in Europe. Great Britain and Germany are the only European coun- tries which produce more coal than is required by their home consumption. During 1899 the coal production of all Europe was 404 million tons. Half of this amount came from the English collieries, and 36 million tons of the Eng- lish output was consumed on the continent. France imports from England one-fifth as much coal as she herself produces; with Germany this proportion is one-twentieth; with Rus- sia one-fourth. Spain’s coal production and her imports from England areabout equal. Holland, Denmark, Norway, Italy and Turkey are practically without coal mines and draw their principal supply from England. Upon the con- tinent English coal holds the balance of power between a coal sufficiency and a coalfamine. Therefore, England’s ability to sustain and increase her coal output is the key to the coal situation in Europe. The maximum output and the possible exhaustion of the English coal fields is a question which admits of very con- tradictory answers. Forty years ago Jevons pointed out the small significance of estimates based on the amount of coal actually held beneath the ground. Long before the last ton of coal could be reached the cost of mining would have attracted the product of more availab!e fields. An economic not a physical check would close the English collieries. Jevons’ predictions as to an increased price have been, ina measure, sustained. In 1860 the price of the best English coal was about $2.50 per ton. In 1900 the quoted price has reached $5.50. Within the past two years ‘‘the average price of coal and coke has probably advanced quite 100 per cent.’”’* Since 1897 the contract price of locomotive coal has advanced 50 per cent. The increased output during the past year is 8.8 per cent. The fact that the high prices of coal have not called forth a larger production is significant in showing England’s fu- ture position asa coal producer. It is admitted that the Scotch collieries have already attained their maximum. In Wales and the southern countries an increased demand is met by sinking deeper shafts and thus adding to the cost of hoisting, pumping and ventilating. New fields are de- veloped only as their disadvantages are counterbalanced by the increased cost of production in the old mines. In other words, English coal mining is obeying the law of diminish- ing returns with all the strictness which attend an extractive industry in an old and developed country. This is the fundamental condition which would subject England to a disadvantage if her coal and that of a compar- atively undeveloped coutry, such as America, could compete on equalterms. It must notbe supposed, however, that England’s present coal production is failing. Upto 1899 England produced more coal than did any other nation, and now that the United States has assumed England’s position as the largest coal producer in the world, she does so only by means of acoal field twenty times as largeas that of England. The coal deposits within the United States are sufficient to supply Europe’s need is well understood. While the maximum output of coal in England is rapidly reaching its limit, the coal production in this country is but one-third of the production possible.t During 1899 the coal output increased 16 percent. But the physical possibility of filling the European deficiency is of comparatively small import- ance in determining whether or not American coal will im- mediately enter the European markets. Thisisa question of competitive prices. The price paid for American coal * “Tron and Coal Trades Review,”’ 1900. + ‘Coal Trade Journal,” April, 1900. must cover three items: The cost of mining, of transporting to the sea board and the ocean freight. The third item quite overbalences the first two. The quoted price of the best grade coal in the Chesapeake ports is $2.15; that cf the best coal i. Cardiff, Wales is $5.25. The cost of transpor- tation to Genoa, Italy is $4 25 per ton for the American and $2.25 for the English coal, These figures are crude and merely show the apparent margin of profit. ; Coal is so bulky a commodity that ocean freight must be the determining factor in this export trade. However, it may be assumed that as the trans-Atlantic transportation of coal becomes a more developed business, economies will be introduced to the marked lowering of ocean charges. Boats especially designed to carry not less than 5,0co, and possibly 7,000 tons would imply an ocean rate of $1.25 per ton to British and $1.59 per ton to Mediterranean ports. Assuming $300,000 as the initial cost of a coal steamer carrying 7,000 tons, the cost of a trip one way can- be shown to be about $8,000, and, under favorable conditions, this amount would — be subject to considerable reductions.{ This estimate im- plies a return cargo. Iu the matter of back freight the position of the United States would be less favorable than that of England. England’s coal made her a manufacturing nation and so arefiner of raw materials. Her exports be- came less bulky than her imports, and the shipmasters rather sail in ballast loaded than returning vessels with coal. America’s exports to Europe consists of bulky commodities, especially agricultural products. The imports, on the other hand, are mostly fine manufactured goods But in the - South American trade this condition is reversed, and, as the southern continent is unsupplied with coal; it is natural to suppose that our coal will find a market in South America: quite as readily asin Europe. It is noticeable that, with the industrial development of the United States, the importation of raw materials increases. The 1899 imports of bulky materials, such as hides and rubber, were 68 per cent. in advance of similar importations in 1893.|| The increased price and production of American coal has already been cited. During 1899 the demand for coal in the country was far from satisfied, many manufacturers being nable to obtain sufficient fuel. This scarcity caused the investment of much capital in American coal properties. When once the attention of the investing public has been attracted by the profitable prices current in any industry and the movement for increasing the supply gets under way, its own momentum may carry it beyond the point warranted by the needs of the country. If general business prosperity makes this condition true of many industries the over pro- ‘duction results in the so-called ‘‘hard times.’’ How far this movement is now being carried on in the coal business isa matter of speculation. In West Virginia the present year opened with five new railroads under construction and ‘‘quite a number about to be begun.’’? In Pennsylvania 177 miles of new railroad are now being built. These branch roads bring the undeveloped coal fields into touch with the trunk lines. Thousands of new coke ovens are reported in process of construction. The coal trade is adapting itself to the demands of ‘‘good times’’ business. When the round of prosperity has ended,a great mass of coal will be thrown out of market. Coal is too bulky to be putin store. It must be sold even at unremunerative prices. Since European industry is not subject to the violent fluctuations prevailing in the United States and since the periods of business de- pressions in the two continents are not necessarily contem- poraneous, it follows that American coal will enter the Eu- ropean market more readily during a period of American business depression. 3 Up to this time the export of Americau coal has been com paratively unimportant. In 1899 5 75 million tons were ex ported, being an increase of 27 per cent. over the previous year. The exports for the first three months of 19co have been two million tons. When American producers are barely able to supply the home demand the temptation to engage in foreign business is extremely slight. But as the production outstrips the home demand the miners will be compelled to find new markets, and thus an export trade in American coal will be established. { ‘Coal Trade Journal,” April, 1909. | New York Times, January 1, 1909, ETD Se Weight of Evidence.—Testimony from a steamer, clearly in fault fora collision with a sailing vessel, that the latter was guilty of contributing fault by changing her course, will be viewed with suspicion; and when the evidence from the saili g vessel is to the contrary, and accords with the probabilities, it will be accepted in preference. The Isaac H. Tillyer, ror Fed. Rep. (U. S.) 478.